Biography †Aryabhata, the Indian mathematician Essay

Aryabhata (476 CE – 550 CE) was the first Hindu mathematician and astronomers from India. He wrote couple of treatise about mathematics and astronomy. Some of them were lost. His most famous works Aryabhatiya completed in 499 CE and the Arya-Siddhanta. Aryabhatiya consists of 108 verses, in which Aryabhata wrote about the mathematics and astronomy at the age of 23 in 499 CE. He was born in India at Asmaka or Kusumapura in 476 CE. There is no clear evidence of the place of birth (Indian Streams Research General, September 2012). Aryabhata studied in Kusumapura and stayed there for some time. The evidences from Hindu, Buddhist tradition, and Bhaskara I (629 CE) recognize Kusumapura as Pataliputra, currently known as Patna. Aryabhata was the head of an institution at Kusumapura. The University of Nalanda was in Pataliputra at the time. This university had an astronomical observatory that forces the belief that Aryabhata was the head of the Nalanda University. Aryabhata set up an observatory at the Sun temple in Taregana, Bihar (Aryabhata – Indian Mathematician). Aryabhatiya deals with mathematics and astronomy. That consists of an introduction containing astronomical tables and Aryabhata’s system of phonemic number notation. This work consists of three sections: Ganita (means mathematics), Kala-kriya (means Time calculations), and Gola (means Sphere). Ganita covers decimal number system, algorithms for square and cubic roots, geometric measurements, the algorithm for Pi, tables of sines using Pythagorean Theorem, quadratic equations, proportions, and the solution of linear equations. This discusses the Aryabhata’s method to solve the mathematical problem, Kuttaka (means pulverizer) also known as Aryabhata’s algorithm. This algorithm suggests breaking a problem in smaller fractions. Kala-kriya speaks about astronomy. It is about treating planetary motion and include the definition of various units for time, eccentric, epicyclic planetary motion modes, longitude, and latitude. Gola discusses the plane trigonometry to spherical geometry. It also has prediction of solar and lunar eclipses and explicit statement about westward motion of stars because of the  spherical rotation of the Earth about its axis (Indian Streams Research General, September 2012). The Arya-siddhanta was the work on astronomical computations. Surya Siddhanta was the base of this work and considered the start of the day at the midnight, as opposed to sunrise according to Aryabhatiya. It also contained a description of several astronomical instruments: the gnomon (shanku-yantra), a shadow instrument (chhAyA-yantra), possibly angle-measuring devices, semicircular, and circular (dhanur-yantra/chakra-yantra), a cylindrical stick yasti-yantra, an umbrella-shaped device called the chhatra-yantra, and water clocks of at least two types, bow-shaped and cylindrical. Bakhshali Manuscript discussed the place-value system first in the 3rd century. Georges Ifrah, the mathematician from France, acknowledged that awareness of zero by Aryabhata in place-value system because of a place holder for the powers of 10 with null coefficients. Instead of using Brahmi numerals Aryabhata continued the tradition from Vedic times by using letters of the alphabet for denoting numbers, expressing quantities, such as the table of sines in a mnemonic form (Indian Streams Research General, September 2012). The Surya Siddhanta laid foundational rules to determine the true motions of the luminaries and introduced the sine, cosine trigonometric functions. Aryabhata devised the formulae for calculating the area of triangle and circle. He also devised the same for pyramid and sphere. Formulae for triangle and circle were correct. Most historians claimed that formulae for sphere and pyramid were incorrect. He created a table of sines and versine with formula sin (n+1) x – sin nx = sin (n-1) x – (1/225) sin nx versin= 1 – cosine Aryabhata’s definition of jya (sine), kojya (cosine), urkrama-jya (versine), and otkram-jya (inverse sine) influence the trigonometry (Indian Streams Research General, September 2012). Aryabhata concluded that the approximation for pi ([pic]) is irrational. In Ganitapada he gave the formula for the ratio of circumference to the diameter as ((4 + 100) Ãâ€" 8 + 62000)/20000 = 62832/20000 = 3.1416, which is accurate to five significant figures (Aryabhata – Indian Mathematician). The speculation was that Aryabhata used ‘Ä sanna’ (means approaching), to mean that not only is this approximation but also that the value is irrational. This shows quite a sophisticated insight from him because Lambert proved the irrationality of pi in Europe only in 1761. Bhaskara’s commentary on Aryabhatiya discusses the topic known as Diophantine equations, e.g., integer solutions to the equations that have the form ax+by = c. That formula to find value of N stated as N = 8x+5 = 9y+4 = 7z+1. It turns out that the smallest value for N is 85. Vedic text Sulba Sutras discussed these notoriously difficult diophantine equations. Aryabhata provided rules of algebra in the Aryabhatia and those are as follows: and  13 + 23 +†¦+n3= (1+2+†¦+n) 2 In some texts, Aryabhata seems to ascribe the apparent motions of the heavens to the Earth’s rotation. He believed that the planet’s orbits as elliptical rather than circular. Aryabhata correctly insisted that the earth rotates about its axis daily and that the apparent movement of the stars is a relative motion caused by the rotation of the earth, contrary to the then-prevailing view in other parts of the world that the sky rotated. The first chapter of the Aryabhatiya indicated this, where he gives the number of rotations of the earth in a yuga, and made more explicit in his gola chapter (A He used analogy of movement of boat going forward. During this movement person feels an unmoving object going in opposite direction than the boat. With this analogy he discussed the appearance of unmoving stars going uniformly westward. The cause of rising and setting is that the sphere of the stars together with the planets apparently turns due west at the equator, constantly push ed by the cosmic wind. Aryabhata described a geocentric model of the solar system, in which he mentioned that the Sun and Moon in turn revolve around the Earth. He calculated the positions and periods of the planets with respect to uniformly moving points. He stated that speed at which Mercury, Venus, and Sun move around the Earth is identical and is different from the specific speed of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. He represented each planet’s motion through the zodiac. Most historians of astronomy expressed that this two-epicycle model reflects elements of pre-Ptolemaic Greek astronomy. Historians saw another element in Aryabhata’s model, the Å›Ä «ghrocca, the basic planetary period in relation to the Sun as a sign of an underlying heliocentric model. He explained  solar and lunar eclipses. He stated that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight and explained eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth. His theory explained the lunar eclipse occurs when the moon ent ers into the Earth’s shadow and discussed the length the size and extent of the Earth’s shadow. He provided the computation and the size of the eclipsed part during an eclipse. Later Indian astronomers improved on the calculations, but Aryabhata’s methods provided the core. Aryabhata calculated the sidereal rotation as 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.1 seconds; the modern value is 23:56:4.091. Similarly, his value for the length of the sidereal year at 365 days, six hours, 12 minutes, and 30 seconds is an error of three minutes and 20 seconds over the length of a year (Indian Streams Research General, September 2012). Aryabhata’s work influenced the Indian astronomical tradition and several neighboring cultures through translations. His work as translated in Arabic during the Islamic Golden Age (c. 820 CE). Al-Khwarizmi cited some of his results and in the 10th century Al-Biruni stated that Aryabhata’s followers believed that the Earth rotated on its axis. Aryabhata’s astronomical calculation methods were also very influential. Islamic world widely used the trigonometric tables to compute many Arabic astronomical tables (zijes). Calendric calculations devised by Aryabhata and his followers contributed the practical purposes of fixing the Panchangam (the Hindu calendar). Other cultures used this for forming the calendar systems. India honored Aryabhata by naming India’s first satellite as Aryabhata. An Institute for conducting research in astronomy, astrophysics, and atmospheric sciences is the Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences (ARIOS) near Nainital, India. Indian authorities named the inter-school math competition as ‘Aryabhata Maths Competition’, as is Bacillus Aryabhata, a species of bacteria discovered by ISRO scientists in 2009. References Indian Streams Research General: Avhale, P. S; Waghmare, R. V.; Kolhe, S. B. Indian Streams Research Journal. Sep2012, Vol. 2 Issue 8, Special section p1-5. 5p. Retrieved from https://ehis.ebscohost.com/eds/detail?vid=2&hid=117&sid=d84c9078-6d85-4131-9209-e44cdb4cba58%40sessionmgr110&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmU%3d#db=a9h&AN=82351338

Ideas for Young Activists

Transparency International, 2014 Philippines: A Million New Inspectors About 1 million boy and girl scouts in Philippines have counted textbooks and conducted quality inspections throughout the country. Working hand-in-hand with government and non-government agencies, the programmer discourages theft of textbooks and helps promote long-term transparency in the country schools.The Department of Education provided an open door to programmer organizers, including access to budget information, contracts, and delivery points, as well as providing inspection sites. Local organizations and volunteers that include schoolchildren also carry out the monitoring – including surprise inspections – during the textbook production process. The programmer has proved successful at reducing corruption In the textbook distribution process. India: I Paid a Bribe On www. Liberated. Com. Citizens can report their experiences of corruption.The site received almost 22,500 reports between 2010 a nd 2012, some of which were kicked up by the media and resulted in arrests and convictions. On the flipped, citizens can also report positive experiences they've had with honest officers. Solomon Islands: Comics against Corruption The Solomon Islands government, in partnership with Transparency Solomon Islands, ran a programmer that used comic-style posters and comic strips in newspapers to increase awareness of corruption in the country. It encouraged Solomon Islanders to say â€Å"Nap Ana! To corruption by reporting anyone they believe to be involved In corrupt practices. The comic was timed to coincide with International Ann-corruption Day on 9 December. Each comic told the story of average Solomon Islanders In everyday situations, and how their lives can be deeply affected by seemingly simple acts of corruption. The campaign covered the topics of bribery, favoritism, misuse of funds and what you can do to stop corruption. The series of anti-corruption comics ran in all three of Solomon Islands' major newspapers – and was even available as a pull-out poster insert in the Solomon Star.Afghanistan: Kabuki's Corruption Marathon Afghan youth Atari Equatorial uses marathons to fight corruption. He sees sport as the best way to spread awareness among Afghan youth, so he organized his first big marathon against corruption. The team was able to gather around 500 young Afghan boys and girls In one of Kabuki's many dusty streets. Their message was loud and clear: â€Å"Don't pay or accept bribes†. The participants did not run a long distance, but a large crowd noticed the group. Strider also involved local radio stations in his outreach helped them convey their message to an even larger audience.India: The â€Å"Zero Rupee† Movement The â€Å"zero rupee† note was created by an Indian physics professor who was harassed by endless extortion demands. He handed out the â€Å"zero rupee† notes as a polite way of saying â€Å"no† to officials who held out their hands. Printed on the note was â€Å"Eliminate Corruption at all levels† and â€Å"l promise to neither accept nor give a bribe†. When a corrupt official suggests to a citizen that they should pay a bribe to get something done, the citizen can hand over the â€Å"zero rupee† note and its effects have taken hold.The Indian MONGO 5th Pillar has now distributed more than 1 million bills in five languages since 2007. Solomon Islands: Clean Election Pledge A group of young volunteers established the â€Å"Clean Election Campaign† in the Solomon Islands. Their approach was to gather voter pledges, each being a promise to not take part in corrupt activities during that year's election. Their pledge states: â€Å"l pledge that I will reject all bribes. I will not accept any false promises. I will not sell my vote. I will not involve myself in any corrupt activities during, before and after the elections.And also I pledge that I wi ll use my full conscience to decide on my vote and ask God to help me to decide my vote. And I pledge that I will only vote for an honest leader. † Kenya: Mapping the Election Jacuzzi is an open-source platform designed to courseware information via SMS and online messaging and appears on an interactive map. Pioneered in Kenya after the fall-out of the deadly 2008 elections, the website had 45,000 users in Kenya reporting on both instances of electoral fraud and acts of integrity during the following presidential elections.Activists launched the platform to courseware data via Twitter, SMS, Android, e-mail and the web. More than 4,500 reports were cast – and a staggering 58 per cent of these claims have been verified. The findings were referred to by Jenny's electoral commission and international media. Venezuela: Tweeting the Election Twitter is a simple way to monitor elections with your friends and community. Use or create a credible twitter name so that fellow tweet ers know whom to contact for details on election monitoring. Design a washrag so that voters tweeting claims of election fraud are streamlined (e. #Pomegranate or #Cafeteria). In Venezuela, civil society organizations came together to cast a watchful eye on the national elections via Twitter. They received tweets – including photos – from around the country to gather data on election violations at the polling stations through several hostage. They received more than 1,000 tweets claiming electoral fraud. These strategies do you think be the most effective in dealing with corruption? Choose two and explain why. 3. What other strategies do you think local people could use to deal with corruption in their government?

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Advanced HealthCare Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Advanced HealthCare Management - Essay Example the organization and they help in establishing plans through which they effectively cooperate to fulfill the aims of such organizations in the most amicable ways. In health care, teams help in implementing the plans of the institutions they serve so that they offer services that can establish them quality deliverers for the benefit of their clients. Teams that are established in different organizations have different characteristic that produce significant impact on the performance of such at the individual or organizational level (Burns, Bradley & Weiner, 2012). This implies that at to ensure that a team is to produce exemplary results that will trigger the success of the organization; the teams that exist in must have a well focused on the goals. One factor that leads to good performance of a team and consequently improves the productivity of the organization is communication among the team members that are involved in establishing it. Communication ensures that team members are in a position to exchange relevant data among themselves and lead to improvement of the quality of services they offer to clients. In health care, teams ensure that all the people are in a position to supply the information about a specific field of study which turns out to be relevant to the care they give to the people to patients. On the contrary, failure in the communication results to low performance of the team because the members lack the updated information that can be of help in implementing care (Woodcock & Francis, 2008). Another characteristic of a team that has an impact on performance is the diversity that is represented by the team members who work together because they have different backgrounds. The diversity in a team can work for the improvement of a team if they work to bring together knowledge in different fields that will ensure they diversify the perspective of looking at the care. On the other hand, diversity in the group can cause conflicts that can weigh down

General George S. Patton Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

General George S. Patton - Essay Example As a way of expressing his feelings and thoughts he was also writing poems. General to be George Patton was born in 1885 in San Gabriel California to the wealthy family of an attorney. His parents, being well educated themselves, were also giving good education to their son from an early age, main subjects being classic literature and history. The other subject his father grounded him in was the Bible, which Georgie, as he was known later throughout his life, knew mostly by heart. Christianity became a guiding light in his life, along with his passion for battles and war. Though he had an early start with the education and was very intelligent, he did not know how to read or write until the age of 11. It seems Patton suffered from dyslexia, which could not be diagnosed at that time. It manifested itself in George’s inability to spell properly, and his problems in mathematics. George Patton Jr. attended Virginia Military Institute just like his father and a grandfather. He had a blood of a military officer running through his veins. His grandfather was a colonel in the Confederacy in the War Between the States, and was killed in one of the battles; many of George’s uncles were also participating in the war. After the war has ended, many war heroes were visiting Patton’s house and George was listening to stories told by the battle veterans themselves. Patton’s father also told his son many stories about the war and battle heroes; he took his son to visit battlefields of Civil War. All this had such a great influence on George Jr. that at the age of 10 he set a goal of becoming a hero and a famous general. He was very determined to reach this goal, and spent most of his childhood in studying what he thought a general needs to know. Entering Virginia Military Institute was a next step toward his dream. His problems in mathematics continued so much so that he had to have a permission to repeat the first year. However, his learning disabil ities did not hinder him from graduating successfully. Being good at sports also helped him in obtaining his diploma. His sport achievements were so great that Patton represented the United States in the Olympics of 1912 in Stockholm. He placed 5th out of 46 in the first modern Pentathlon. Patton really liked physical competitions, and believed in the fair play. Also, when in army, he was initiating forming teams for different sports such as football and polo. While at Cavalry School in France, he also learned how to fence. While still a student, he designed and taught a course in swordsmanship. Later he received orders to return to Kansas, and continued teaching fencing. The title of â€Å"Master of Sword† that he received was his rightfully. During all these years Patton never engaged in the real battle. Pursuing his dream of becoming a hero, Patton asked General John J. Pershing to accompany him in the Mexico Border campaign, in 1915. During this time Patton got recognitio n from the general and notoriety back in United States. This campaign became the first real war combat Patton had engaged in. When the WWI began, Patton was accompanying General Pershing, the commander of Headquarters Troop, in his trip to France. Patton was promoted to Captain, then, temporarily, to the Major. He was given a command of the Army Tank Corps – a novelty in the Army at that time. The Battle of Cambria was the first battle where large number of tanks was used. Patton attended this battle only as an observer, but, after what he had witnessed, he was convinced

Construction Contract Law Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Construction Contract Law - Research Paper Example Joint Contracts Tribunal (J.C.T), on the other hand, refers to another family of contracts custom-built for complex and large construction projects. This contract legally binds all the stakeholders working on the project from the employer to all the contracted individuals in the project (Rowlinson 2011, p. 4). Construction engineers are often at a crossroads when picking either of the two families of contracts. The differences are quite clear starting with the administrator or project manager of the project. In this essay will compare the two families of contracts to determine which is superior. The two contractual families, despite achieving similar results, have different approaches in handling a project’s stakeholders. The first major difference is how both contracts handle a project’s programme. The NEC contract, for instance, follows the last accepted programme in timing compensation (Eggleston & Eggleston 2006, p. 9). This Accepted Programme refers to the programme identified by the contract or the programme approved by the project manager. Once the project manager approves the latest programme, this programme will supersede all previous programmes. In the JCT 2011 contract, the master programme refers to the critical paths that the project must undergo during the course of the programme. In contrast to the NEC programme, the JCT 2011 programme is amendable during the course of the project (Chappell 2012, p. 62). The amendment period usually spans 14 days and the contractor is the one tasked with making the appropriate amendments. The second difference between the two contracts is the handling of time extension. The JCT contract, according to clause 2.27, states that delays that might occur during the Works the contractor is tasked with giving notice to the contract administrator (Chappell 2012, p. 38). The contractor is required to state the material circumstances that led to the causation of the delay. If an

Retail Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

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Set Induction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Set Induction - Essay Example The set should be clear enough for the students to know what is expected of them. It should also help them have an idea of what to expect from their instructor. A good set should also help create motivation among learners. This motivation will help enhance clarity and enable students to be fully engaged in the whole learning process (Schuck, 227). Proper set induction by course instructors is necessary for creating interest in and understanding of a new subject among students. I attended an in-depth science class to assess the impact of set induction on students. The lecturer just went straight for the lecture notes once the lesson began. There was no introduction to the lesson; therefore there was nothing to grip the attention of the students. The lecturer used power-point presentations for his notes, which were all in the class text books. I thought that set induction to the subject was lacking. The lecturer did nothing to introduce the students to the new concept of the lesson, and yet this is a science class in which students need to understand the concept from the beginning. The lecturer did not welcome the students, and I sensed some indifference in the way he started the lecture without settling the students down. This sense of indifference was also obvious among the students who lost attention during the early stages of the lesson. Some of them turned to other activities that were not related at all to what they were learning, like sending emails and messages on their phones. I think that the way the lecturer started his lecture was not the right way to go about any learning process. He should have used a simple set induction to get the students ready for whatever he was going to teach them. I think the students turned to other activities other than paying attention to what the lecturer was saying due to the fact that they did not understand anything he said. The lack of attention could also be attributed to the fact that the instructor used

American revolution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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Managing Change and Innovation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

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Stereotypes of Culture Essay Example for Free

Stereotypes of Culture Essay This essay aims to explore benefits and disadvantages for managers to use sophisticated stereotypes. Stereotypes provide international managers an advantage of ‘first guess’ about cultural behaviors in countries and organizations so that they can develop appropriate strategies to cope with cross-cultural problems. However, it causes three drawbacks. If stereotyping is judging a group of people on the basis of theoretical concepts, it will be called ‘sophisticated stereotyping’ (Osland and Bird, 2000). The greatest benefit is sophisticated stereotype offers basic cultural knowledge, and is useful for managers to guess about cultural behavior in a country. Therefore, it is used as assistant tool in building unitary organizational cultures. The tourist firm relied on Hosftede’s framework. Because Japanese are collectivistic while Danish are individualistic, the Danish director had to consider whether provide guidance to Danish staffs or strict control to Japanese staffs, instead using individual competencies for all employees. Another example, the audio-visual firm took a chance of gender differentiation between Denmark and Japan to recruit suitable talents for their Tokyo office because it knows Japanese prefer masculine values. Hence it can say that sophisticated stereotypes can be a helpful weapon in implementing cultural management strategies. In contrast, sophisticated stereotypes cannot capture paradox which is the first disadvantage. In particular, if there are no exact cultures as described, people who depend on generalization studies cultural barriers will get confused. However, people who are acquired with cultural differences via their knowledge and experiences will be able to foresee what is most important and the best thing to do in foreign countries. Second, theoretical studies in national cultures are not sufficient to intercultural business context because international business embraced various cultures across borders. However, such scholars as Hofstede, Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars, Hall have studied in a single-national culture. Furthermore, sophisticated stereotypes do not describe potential cultural changes in intercultural encounters. These scholars had conducted researches for at least 19 years ago. Corporate cultures might change over time as a consequence of changes in perception and modern societies. In this case, national generalizations are useless to fit to intercultural encounters. Thus, managers merely gain insight into multi-cultural management by their experience and new approaches. In conclusion, because of above risks, sophisticated stereotypes merely are useful at the starting point for managers to guess cultural behaviors. Moving beyond sophisticated stereotypes, they need to make incremental changes by using their own knowledge to manage cultural issues.

The Negative Effect Of Clubbing On The Body

The Negative Effect Of Clubbing On The Body The levels of clubbing and video gaming have increased in the twenty first century; however the people that go out dont know realise that they are falling victim to the unhidden dangers of clubbing. Epilepsy and heart attacks are conditions that have been associated with stress, bad nutrition and other major triggers of the conditions without realising that even the so-called fun places and gadgets we spend time on can be a danger to our lives, or the lives of an epileptic. Commonly used strobe lights in the clubs can lead to photo sensitive epilepsy which isnt just there to enhance the hype of the clubbing, but are a serious danger. The rhyme of the music in the night clubs can also lead to severe consequences such as cardiac arrest. Therefore in this assignment we will be trying to make aware to all people the dangers of the fun side of our lives, mostly to the young people who have adapted to the twenty first century style of living. Negative effects of music on the heart: Some types of music can cause the brain to lose its symmetry between its right and left halves, or hemispheres. It can likewise generate diminished work capabilities in adults. The specific type of beat may be at fault. The types of music that cause these effects on the brain are mostly aggressive forms of music such as heavy rock or rap. The anapestic beat causes the switching of the brain, that is, the symmetry that exists between the two hemispheres of the brain is destroyed. This strains the heart and causes a stress to the body, weakening the muscles. (Heather, S, 2006, pg1) The anapaestic beat, which is the type of rhythm found in hard rock music, is known to be the exact opposite rhythm to that of our heart. Naturally this interrupts the natural rhythm of the heart, and disturbs normal heart rate and results in a strain or stress to the body. (Heather, S, 2006, pg1) Loud, fast paced music significantly increases the heart rate and when heart rate increases, cardiac output and resultantly blood pressure also go up. Blood pressure is raised by crisp, repeated chords. Both consonant and dissonant chords exert a profound effect on a persons pulse and respiration. (Frederick, W, 2007, pg32) Intense or loud music e.g. rock, electro result in the bodys release of the fight or flight hormones, i.e. epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol by the adrenal glands. This is followed by the constriction of the tiny blood vessels and consequently the increase in the blood pressure and heart rate. (Navaro, R, 2009, pg73) the way the body reacts can be likened to the same way it reacts when under stress or strain. Heart rate acceleration is associated with loudness , the tempo and the musical complexity of the music that is, as the tempo increases and the music becomes louder and with the inclusion of several instruments comes the marked and rapid increase in circulatory and cardiac activity. (Kahn A,P, 2009, pg220) The increase in blood pressure due to the strain brought on the body is counteracted by blocking/inhibition of the central sympathetic outflow of the heart and peripheral circulation. Baroreceptors are able to detect the changes in the vessel walls, which occurs due to the changes in the arterial pressure. The regulation occurs sequentially, from the intermediolateral cell column, to the preganglionic neurons, sympathetic ganglia, and to the post ganglionic sympathetic nerves directed to the heart, arterioles, veins and kidneys. This homeostatic process is referred to as the Baroreflex negative feedback loop which is the bodys way to react to increased blood pressure. The final result is a decrease in blood pressure and heart rate. (Fink, 2000, pg241) http://s1.favim.com/orig/26/adidas-party-rave-strobe-lights-Favim.com-227934.jpg http://a0.twimg.com/profile_images/768839063/SoundSystemSpkrWall.jpg (DJ in night club, n.d.) (Picture of a sound system, n.d.) Positive Effect of Music on the Heart: Music can have a positive effect on the body. This however does not include house, club, rave or any music with a fast beat. Classical music can cause the heart rate (pulse) to relax to the beat of the music as the rhythm is slow and calming. Such classical music includes that of the baroque period. As the heart rate becomes more relaxed so does the body, this allows for increased concentration. By having a decreased heart rate a persons blood pressure will decrease too, allowing for enhanced learning abilities. (Anon, 2012) Music doesnt just affect the heart rate, but also the frequency and amplitude of the brain waves. This is measured with an electroencephalogram. As well as effecting the breathing rate and the skins electrical resistance. So depending on the pace of the music depends on how the breathing rate, brain waves and the skins electrical resistance will be affected. Calming music will decrease the breathing rate although the breaths that will be taken will be deep allowing for increased oxygen to be supplied throughout the body. (Anon, 2012) How a heart attack happens/ What is a heart attack: For our hearts to function we need oxygen and nutrients, this ensures that the heart carries on beating. The rhymatic beating of the heart allows nutrients and oxygen to be pumped in and around the body which ensures our survival. When there is a shortage or no oxygen, the heart will not be able to function normally. This is known as a heart attack or a coronary attack. (Anon, 2012) This happens when the coronary arteries which carry the oxygen to the heart become blocked. This blockage can be due to cholesterol, fat and other substances which are known collectively as plaque. Causing the arteries to become thick and hard. This is known as atherosclerosis. (Anon, 2012) This plaque is dangerous in many ways one of them being that the plaque can break in the coronary artery causing a blood clot in this area. This blood clot blocks the coronary artery, cutting off the blood supply to the heart. This is known as an ischemia. During this blockage if any damage or death of any part of the heart muscle has occurred during an ischemia this is known as myocardial infarction (MI). (Anon, 2012) There can also be an obstruction in the artery other than a blockage leading to a heart attack. (Anon, 2012) (With some of the above mentioned heart attacks such as atherosclerosis, there are no symptoms as the body has compensated for the narrowing of the coronary arteries by widening other arteries.) (Anon, 2012) An angina attack can often be confused for a heart attack. An angina pectoris is when the patient feels a sharp pain in his/her chest. This does not cause any damage to the heart muscle whereas a heart attack does. An angina pectoris occurs normally during exercise or emotional pain causing the patients blood pressure to increase beyond normal. (Anon, 2012) Other causes of a heart attack can be a spasm in the coronary artery blocking the blood supply flow towards the heart muscle hindering the oxygen and vital supply of nutrients to the heart. The cause of the spasm is unknown and can occur in an ordinary artery or in one that has a blockage. If the spasm is severe this can lead to a heart attack. (Anon, 2012) Cardiac arrest is when there is an abnormal heart beat. This is slightly different to a heart attack because it is due to the hearts electrical system. This is when the electrical system malfunctions. Cardiac arrest sometimes known as sudden cardiac death SCD is when there is an irregular heartbeat, Arrhymias. Most common is ventricular fibrillation; this is when the lower chambers of the heart stop pumping blood. Death will occur in a few minutes if CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) or using a defibrillator to restore the normal heart beat. (Anon, 2012) Warning signs of a heart attack: Chest pain/discomfort Discomfort in the upper body regions Dyspnoea shortness of breath Cold sweats Nausea Fatigue light headed Palpitations heart heating fast (Anon, 2012) Risk factors which promote heart disease: Smoking Diet high in saturated fats Elevated cholesterol levels Obesity (Anon, 2012) How is a heart attack treated? Treatment of a heart attack may be both surgical and non-surgical. The type of treatment administered to a heart attack patient depends on the type of heart attack they are suffering from and treatment window (time span) in which treatment may be offered. Because only a few hospitals offer 24 hour percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) procedures, clot-dissolving medication is used to reopen arteries that may be clogged. Such medication may not be used on patients with neurological disorders, pregnant patients, patients who have had major surgery or trauma in the past 6 weeks and patients who had been vomiting blood. (Amy and Elliot, 2006) Angioplasty Should a doctor decide that a patient needs an angioplasty, artery blockages will be observed on an angiogram (an x-ray of the hearts arteries) in a catheterization laboratory. A PCI is then performed by a cardiologist, in which the patient will remain awake throughout the whole procedure. During this procedure the skin is numbed, and a needle is inserted through the skin and a catheter and a soft-tipped guide wire are threaded into the aorta, and then into the heart using the needle. The catheter tip is passed through the arteries that transport the blood to the heart. Once the catheter is in place, a dye is injected into the heart vessels to make any blockages visible on x-ray. A tiny balloon on the tip of the catheter is inflated to unblock the artery. After the procedure, a stent is inserted where the blockage was. The stent is will remain permanently in the heart and may in some cases slowly release medication over time which prevents the growth of scar tissue and also prevents the formation of clots on that site. The recovery process may then take place in the coronary care unit which is an intensive care unit, where the patient will be monitored with ECGs, blood tests and routine checkups 24 hours a day. (Anon., 2012) Antiplatelet medication is prescribed to patients with newly inserted stents. This medication is important to prevent clotting in the stents. This medication must be taken by the patient for at least 12 months. If a patient stops taking the medication too soon it may result in a clot that may block the flow of blood through the stent resulting in another heart attack. Medication such as beta-blockers, aspirin and statin may also be prescribed by the cardiologist to prevent future heart attacks. In the event that non-surgical treatment is preferred by the doctor, medication can be administered to the patient. The medication is used to prevent future blood clots, break up existing clots, prevent platelets from gathering and sticking to the plaque, stabilize the plaque, and prevent any blood supply restrictions to tissues in the body. In order to decrease the damage that the heart muscle can undergo it is vital that the medication is administered within 30 minutes from when the heart attack symptoms occurred. (Anon., 2012) Medication used in heart attack treatment includes: aspirin thrombolytic therapy (clot busters) heparin other antiplatelet drugs Should a patient have more than 3 blocked arteries, coronary artery bypass surgery is usually recommended. Coronary artery bypass surgery This type of surgery is used to improve the flow of blood to the heart in people with severe coronary artery disease that puts them in the risk of having a heart attack. During this surgery a blocked coronary artery and a healthy vein or artery are joined together in order to improve the flow of blood and oxygen to the heart. 85% of individuals who undergo this surgery are at a less risk of having future heart attacks, they experience fewer symptoms, and they have a lower chance of dying within 10 years after the surgery. There are different types of coronary artery bypass surgery. (Anon., 2012). These include:- Traditional coronary artery bypass surgery This is the most common type of bypass surgery and is performed when a bypass is needed on at least one major artery. During this procedure, the chest is opened; exposing the heart and medication is used to stop the heart until the end of the procedure. The heart is operated on whilst a heart-lung machine is used to pump blood around the body, not depleting the oxygen supply throughout the whole body. Electric shocks are used to start the heart again after the surgery. (Anon., 2012) Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery This type of surgery is also open heart surgery and is similar to the traditional coronary artery bypass surgery. The difference is that the heart is not stopped which reduces the recovery time and also reduces the number of complications that may occur during and after surgery.(Anon., 2012) Minimally invasive direct coronary artery bypass surgery This type of surgery is similar to the off-pump bypass surgery, except it is not open heart surgery. It is used to bypass the vessels in anterior of the heart.it isnt commonly used as it is a new procedure and it is used in cases where more than two arteries are going to be bypassed. The procedure itself is one in which small incision are made in-between the ribs on the left hand side of the body to access the vessels. (Anon., 2012) Description: http://topnews.in/usa/files/heart_attack.jpg (Rose, 2008) What is epilepsy? This is a term used to define condition in which an individual has recurring seizures of also known as fits. These occur when there is a disruption in the messages being relayed across the brain between brain cells resulting in a mix up or a complete halt of messages in the brain. These seizures occur when there is too much sudden brain activity. Each individual who has epileptic fits experiences then in a way that is unique to them, this is because there are different types of seizures and the type of seizure experienced depends the positioning of the epileptic activity, how wide and how fast in the brain the epileptic activity spreads. (Anon, 2012) The cause of some of the epileptic syndromes is unknown while for others it may be hereditary. The type of epilepsy syndrome is usually described according to its symptoms or where in the brain it occurs. There are many different types of epilepsy syndromes some of which begin in infancy, while others begin in adulthood. Some stop during adolescence or early adulthood whilst others are chronic. (Anon, 2012) Different types of epilepsy Photosensitive epilepsy In the event that epileptic seizures are caused by flickering lights or flashing lights, it is referred to as photosensitive epilepsy. In this type of epilepsy, natural or artificial lights and checked or striped patterns may also result in the seizures occurring. The seizure occurs during or shortly after the individual has been exposed to the cause. This type of epilepsy usually occurs to individuals between the ages of 7 and 19 and it affects more boys than girls. (Anon,2012) Absence epilepsy This type of epilepsy is usually hereditary and begins from infancy to adolescence. Individuals with this type of epilepsy experience absence seizures that happen repeatedly. During the seizures individuals have reported symptoms such as a jerking arm or rapidly blinking eyes, whilst others have reported no symptoms at all except for feeling out of it. These symptoms have no effect on an individuals intelligence; however, they could affect learning a school or daily activities if they occur. (Anon 2012) Psychomotor epilepsy With this type of epilepsy, during seizures individuals experience strange emotions, sensations and behaviour. Its name is used to describe partial seizures that keep occurring in the temporal lobe of the brain. Occipital lobe epilepsy This type of epilepsy is similar to temporal and frontal lobe epilepsy, however it usually begins with rapid eye blinking, individuals visualizing hallucinations and/other symptoms which have to do with the eyes. (Anon, 2012) Frontal lobe epilepsy This type of epilepsy has many different types of its kind which are described according to where in the frontal lobe they may occur. It describes a reoccurrence of short seizures which may suddenly stop or begin at any moment in time. (Anon, 2012) Temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) This type of epilepsy is the most common with partial sezuires.it may cause memory loss and make learning difficult as it causes a structure in the brain called the hippocampus to shrink. This structure is vital for learning and memory. Although the damage which may be caused by temporal lobe seizures may take years to occur, it is advised that it is treated early and as effectively as possible to prevent and further damage that may occur. (Anon, 2012) Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy This type of epilepsy is chronic and doesnt always begin in childhood, however once a person has it they have to live with it for the rest of their lives. An example of this type of epilepsy is Ramsay Hunt Syndrome type II which begins in the early adulthood and causes muscle coordination to be reduced, seizures and reduces the abilities to learn, remember, pay attention and solve problems. (Anon, 2012) Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome This type of epilepsy begins in childhood. It has many symptoms which include sudden falls or drop attacks during seizures called atonic seizures. It is very difficult to treat and is also very severe. (Anon, 2012) Strobe lights causing epilepsy. Individual strobes or small groups of strobes have been used in entertainment venues for years. They even became a symbol or sign of night fun, because most of the night clubs use strobe lights and loud music to heat up the fun, without noticing or being aware that this triggered epileptic seizures known as photosensitive epilepsy. Photosensitive epilepsy has been known and studied for many years. Many people are unaware that they are sensitive to flickering lights or to certain kinds of patterns until they have a seizure. They may never go on to develop epilepsy, which is characterized by recurrent spontaneous seizures, though a seizure may be triggered by certain photic conditions. Many individuals who are disturbed by light exposure do not develop seizures but experience other symptoms such as headache, nausea, dizziness and more. Photosensitive epilepsy is more common in children and adolescents, especially those with generalized epilepsy, in particular juvenile myoclonic epileps y. It becomes less frequent with age, with relatively few cases in the mid-twenties. Apparently, there is considerable body of knowledge relative to strobes and photosensitive epilepsy. Standards exist regarding the use of strobes in signalling applications such as for fire alarms. (Anon, 2012) It should be noted that it is not the strobe that is the problem; any light flashing at the noted frequencies may be a problem to photosensitive people. Seizures may be triggered by exposure to television screens (flickering and rolling of pictures), to computer monitors, to certain video games or TV broadcasts containing rapid flashes or alternating patterns of different colours, and to intense strobe lights like visual fire alarms. (Harding, 2008) In the U.S. population stats show that less than 5% of those who suffer from epilepsy are photosensitive. This means that approximately one in 4,000 individuals suffer from this less than 100,000 in the U.S. population. There is high possibility that even in other countries the same stats still stands, but the characteristics of each individuals susceptibility are unique this means there could a great variety on severity of the condition. It is well addressed in articles that the range of 15 to 20 Hz is of greatest concern; however some individuals are susceptible to flashing lights as slow as 5 Hz and some as high as 84 Hz as individuals are susceptible to in different ways. (Anon, 2012) People should check with their doctors if they are concerned about flashing lights triggering seizures. Chances are that the medical records will indicate how you responded to flashing lights during the electroencephalogram (EEG), a test done routinely in most people with epilepsy. During this test, sensors are attached to the patients scalp to monitor the electrical activity of the brain in various conditions, including light stimulation generated by a strobe positioned in front of the eyes. An abnormal response when the patient is exposed to various frequencies of flashing lights indicates the presence of photosensitivity. (Anon, 2012) Ways that would help prevent the triggering of these conditions. Avoid exposure to certain kinds of flashing lights; and Cover one eye and turn away from the direct light source when in the presence of flashing lights. General tips offered by the Epilepsy Foundation Organisation in America to reduce the chances of causing epileptic seizures. (Anon, 2012) Visual Fire Alarm Strobe Lights: In most workplaces and places serving the public, including theatres, restaurants, and recreation areas, are required to have fire alarms, which flash as well as ring so that people who cannot hear or cannot hear well will know that there is an emergency. To reduce the likelihood of the strobe light triggering a seizure, the Epilepsy Foundations professional advisory board recommends that the flash rate be kept to under 2 Hertz with breaks every so often between flashes; and flashing lights should be placed at a distance from each other and set to flash together at the same time to avoid an increase in the number of individual flashes. (Anon, 2012) Television Screens: Watch television in a well-lit room to reduce the contrast between light from the set and light in the room. Reduce the brightness of the screen. Keep as far back from the screen as possible. Use the remote control to change channels on the TV so you wont have to get too close to the set. Avoid watching for long periods of time. Wear polarized sunglasses while viewing television to reduce glare. (Anon, 2012) Videogames: Sit at least 2 feet from the screen in a well-lit room. Reduce the brightness of the screen. Do not let children play videogames if they are tired. Take frequent breaks from the games and look away from the screen every once in a while. Do not close and open eyes while looking at the screen blinking may facilitate seizures in sensitive individuals. Cover one eye while playing; alternating which eye is covered at regular intervals. Turn the game off if strange or unusual feelings or body jerks develop. (Anon, 2012) Computer Monitors: Use a flicker-free monitor (LCD display or flat screen). Use a monitor glare guard. Wear non-glare glasses to reduce glare from the screen. Take frequent breaks from tasks involving the computer. (Anon, 2012) http://blog.eastside.org/wordpress/jamiea/files/2012/02/Lights.jpg (Strobe lights, 2012) What happens during a seizure (Epilepsy) Normally the brain controls the functions of the body, either by interpreting electrical messages from sensory nerves or by generating electrical impulses for transmission down the motor nerves to the muscles. This normal electrical activity can be measured by taking an Electroencephalogram (EEG), using an instrument called an Electroencephalograph. The EEG does not provide a sure diagnose of Epilepsy. (Encyclopaedia of family health) http://www.drugs.com/health-guide/images/205052.jpg(Neurology, 2012) During an Epileptic attack, the electrical impulses recorded by the EEG increases in voltage and frequency, so that what appeared to be a reasonably ordered pattern of electrical activity becomes frenzied. The attack usually begins at one spot and then spreads as the fits develops to involve the whole brain.(Encyclopaedia of family Health) When there are disordered electrical activities over the whole brain, the attack which seldom lasts more than a minute or two may begin with a patient experiencing a strange sensation or an odd unreal smell and a phenomenon called the Dà ©jà   vu. This stage of the attack is known as Aura, followed immediately by the tonic seizure, during which the muscles contract and remain contracted, the patient loses control and falls rigid to the ground. Patient shouts and passes into the Clonic phase, when the arms and legs twitch and the breath is held. In the clonic and tonic phases the sufferer will feel confused and drowsy and may sleep. Paralysis may then develop in one or more limbs and last for an hour or more. (Encyclopaedia of family health) In Children Seizures are called petit mal. The child does not fall down but loses touch with the world for a few seconds, results in confusion and forgetful. If the Seizure attacks the child when they are speaking, he or she will suddenly stop for a couple of seconds then continue as if nothing happened. The child is unaware of the attacks. (Encyclopaedia of family health) What to do if someone has an Epileptic Seizure It is important to know that It is not possible to stop the attack, but helpful to protect the person having such an attack from injury. Here is what to do if someone has an Epileptic Seizure: Ensure that the patient cannot bang his or her limbs against any hard furniture, and keep him or her well away from any fireplace. A child should not be left alone until the attack is over. Do not attempt to push anything into the patients mouth or to force the jaws open. The jaws are powerfully clenched, and it is possible to cause an injury by trying to open them. When the fit is over, turn the patient gently onto one side and loosen his or her clothes on the neck so that there is no difficulty in breathing. If the fit has happened in an unsafe place, get the patient to safety quickly. If someone in the family has a fit for the first time, give the Doctor a careful, detailed account of what happened during the attack and just before it. This will help the Doctor make the correct diagnosis. A child who has a convulsion because of high fever should not be kept warm. Remove blankets and thick clothing, and if temperature rises above 39.40C, sponge the patient all over with tepid water until it comes down to 38.80C. (Encyclopaedia of family health) https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhzFbKLfjsN4konmWUhfTKsseCVWYTNRnXfhkZJ4PUa9JnfYviwpHIV3NG4N1DWvVsNi2GKuMZB4dDwacsUf_XS4E4wpD7Z2J0SUKcCTyRYwrUlKr1tR4RsFpagSaACRmbyEhedIY7XD14/s1600/epilepsy-recovery.jpg (Medical issues seizures, n.d.) The Treatment of Photosensitive Epilepsy As is the case with all seizures, photosensitive seizures are usually treated with drugs known as anticonvulsants. Anticonvulsants refer to a group of diverse pharmaceutical products which are used in both the prevention and the treatment of epilepsy. In photosensitive epilepsy, Sodium Valproate is the recommended treatment. Sodium Valproate works to prevent an excess of electrical activity in the brain, thus calming the brain and preventing the occurrence of fits. Chemicals referred to as neurotransmitters are stored in nerve cells. Their function is to transmit messages between the nerve cells. GABA, is a neurotransmitter that acts to calm the nerves, its function is to maintain a balance of the nerve activity in the brain. Sodium Valproate works to increase the production of the neurotransmitter GABA in the brain and prevent the breakdown of this neurotransmitter, ultimately this results in the stabilising of the electrical nerve activity and achieving the desired therapeutic outc ome, preventing seizures. These drugs cannot completely cure epilepsy but through their use, by strictly following the prescribed drug regimen, epilepsy may be controlled and prevented. (Anon,2008) Although antiepileptic drugs are the most common methods of treatment of epilepsy, but they may not always be effective. Other methods of treatment of epilepsy include: Vagus Nerve Stimulation: The treatment works by sending mild impulses of energy to the brain, via the Vagus nerve via an implanted device (Anon,2007) . This is a treatment used as an option for patients who have tried several anti-epileptic drugs and still have not managed to gain adequate control of their seizures. This treatment is used in conjunction with anti-epileptic drugs. The vagus nerve stimulation does not act as a replacement for the drugs the patient is being administered, it works to aid the drugs thus achieving a better therapeutic response from the patient. Vagus nerve stimulation may also take up to two years to have an effect on a patients seizures, but if the treatment is effective, the patient may be allowed to decrease their anti-epileptic doses over time. The aim of vagus nerve stimulation is to reduce the number of seizures, the length of the seizures and the severity of the seizures in a patient. It must be remembered though that the treatment has a wide range of side effects. Diet: The ketogenic diet. Ketogenic has the meaning, keto which means ketones and genic meaning producing, thus ketone producing. This diet is a high-fat, low-carbohydrate diet (Dr. Eric Kossoff, 2006). The formation of ketones is a result of the body using fat as its energy source. With the decrease in the intake of carbohydrates, the bodies usual energy source, the body uses a fat as an alternative energy source, thus giving rise to ketone formation in the body and ultimately leading to better seizure control. Surgery: this treatment is used when epilepsy cannot be controlled in the patient with medication use. There is no guarantee though that the surgery will have an effect on the patient. The aim of the surgery is to remove the damaged brain tissue in order to effectively stop the seizures (Anon, 2012). https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUl6Zu6AXNdqyij5AcEU9avPbspr2wGS7ekDiNgtSWsY1dj-N2eOtXkzfkMWZD1iG0PkWNeqTnVRZDU-xGz7HjlgodMMeph7KPzgo9n1H7Hy-swiWNxs0BLyoNZjulsPfPGVsTeirYLDSF/s320/sodium-valproate-4.jpg (Sodium Valporate, n.d.) Conclusion: Due to the high increase of epilepsy and heart attacks it is vital that awareness about the causes of these conditions should be made available. Epileptic patients should wear medical ID bracelets, making it easier to identify what could be happening to them during seizures. Light regulation should be put in place in all night clubs, reducing the speed of the strobe lights, therefore lowering the risk of epileptic seizures. A range of treatment options exist for those who have photosensitive epilepsy, but there is no absolute cure for the condition, therefore awareness plays a vital role in precaution and thus prevention of these epileptic attacks. With regards to the effect of the upbeat music genres on the heart and other bodily functions, the best way to curb this is to minimise exposure. This can only be done through people taking initiative to avoid falling victim to a health hazard that could have otherwise been avoided. Regulation of the volumes of the music can be another way to lower the risks, as well as avoiding increasing the tempo of the music as is often the case. Places playing heavy metal music should be avoided at all costs. One can eve

Stereotypes Associated With Tattoos Cultural Studies Essay

Stereotypes Associated With Tattoos Cultural Studies Essay Tattooing is the act of making a mark on the skin by inserting ink to the skin using needles and dyes. The name Tattoo came from the Tahitian word Tatu which means, to mark something. Therefore, tattoo, in this case, would mean to leave a mark on our skin. As its name suggests, tattoos have become a way to identity and represent people in both the negative and positive way. From the past to present, tattoos have undergone a transition from religious practices, branding of slaves and identity of gang members to a widely accepted practice by everyone as a way to represent themselves. Yet, the stigma of tattoos can still be felt today. People tend to have an impression of tattooed people as evil and being part of a triad gang. There are several reasons for this phenomenon, it could be due to firstly, the way tattoo was used in the past, the fact that gang members do use tattoos as an identity and lastly, the image created by the mass media, we will discuss them in detail later in the pa per. To prove that these are indeed stereotypes, we will unveil what tattoos truly represent. The earliest Tattoos seemed to appear in Polynesia where archaeologists discover tattoos around the islands dating to at least the second millennium B.C. However, the exact location and year is unclear until today. Therefore, our project will be more interested in how tattoos were spread throughout the world. There was no definite answer to which country began to spread the use of tattoos. Margo DeMello wrote in his book that North America was the country that caused the wide spread of Tattoos when Captain James Cook visited Tahiti and discovered the art of tattooing there in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. He brought the idea of tattooing back to American and was since then spread to Asian countries. The picture below, Figure 1, is an image of an ancient North American with tattoos. In the picture, the person has a full body tattoo which stretches from the face to his ankle. In another source, A Brief History Of Tattoos stated that Egypt was the one that spread tattoos to other countries. Historical evidences of tattoos in Egypt can be found to be dated as early as before the Pyramids were made. Figure 2 is an image of ancient Egyptians with tattoos. It is visible that the ancient Egyptians had tattoos on their arms and legs. The trend of people getting tattooed today is an increasing one. In March of 2005, The Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology found out that 24% of the general U.S. Population had at least one tattoo; 17% of those people have thought about having a tattoo removed and 5% of them have had a tattoo covered up with a different design. The National Geographic News stated in April 2000 that 15% of Americans were tattooed or about 40 million people. The art of tattooing is so popular that the government of America had to set up a tattoo association called the National Tattoo Association to regulate the activities carried out by tattoo enthusiasts and to limit tattooing time and sales of tattoo equipments. There are two main reasons for the increased popularity of tattoos. Firstly, the process of tattooing is less painful and less time consuming today. The most common method of tattooing in modern times is the electric tattoo machine, which inserts ink into the skin via a group of ne edles that are soldered onto a bar, which is attached to an oscillating unit. This method is much more comfortable as compared to the agonizing traditional method which was to use a tool made of carved bone or wood, and tipped with a cluster of tiny needles, the artist punches into the skin with a succession of painful jabs. Figure 3 is a picture of ancient tattoo tools found in Egypt. Figure 3 Secondly, the media, although also portrayed people with tattoos in the bad light as we will discuss in the later part of our paper, it has also played a major role in transforming tattoos into something so popular. Advertisements for common commodities ranging from cellular phones to alcoholic beverages have in the past ten years deliberately included tattooed skin. The advertisement for Chuck Taylor sneaker has created an ad in which a man with facial tattoos is photographed with a pair of shoes adorning his neck. Therefore, with these factors, it is inevitable for tattoo to become so popular around the world. Tattoos are not worn upon the body but rather inscribed into the body. It is often regarded as a commodity which resists consumer throw-away. Tattooing is a product that involves the consumer to become the witness, participant, and life-long bearer of a unique production process; a process in which the producer and consumer unite in complicated exchange that is simultaneously ritualistic and individualistic. However, before getting tattooed, one will see tattooing as a process which they pass through various barriers. Like Lawrence, we think that tattooing requires one to pass through the barrier of entering the studio, decide the design of tattoos, the location of the tattoos and the pain of tattooing. The process of tattooing involves a needle vibrating in and out at an incredible speed dipped in ink creating an indelible mark on the skin that will withstand all the elements and remain there for a lifetime. As tattoos are permanent, there will often be a second thought whether they should get tattoos. For one to get tattooed, he or she must be determined to get tattooed in order to pass through these barriers. Stereotypes of people with tattoos as ex-convicts and delinquents were due to impression from the past. In the past, many countries used tattoos to mark criminals, to separate them from the majority and to deter people from committing crimes. In China, for example, authorities would tattoo the faces of prisoners who committed severe crimes before they were banished to another land. This is a severe punishment as prisoners who returned to the mainland after their sentence would still be identified as ex-convicts by people and it would be natural for people to shun them. Thus, it is not surprising that the impression of tattoos related to criminals last until today. People in the past also used tattoos in another way, which was to brand slaves. Slaves were tattooed by their masters to claim ownership of their slaves. In ancient Persian, tattoos were used on slaves to indicate both ownership and status. If a slave were to escape from their owner, they can easily be identified by others that they were slaves and who were their masters. Slave tattoos gave the people a status of slave in the past, slaves would be beaten up and abused by just any other people on the road. . In the Greek and roman civilizations, around 2200BC, tattooing was also used in a manner similar to that used with slaves-in other words, a man would tattoo a woman to ensure that she was recognized as his property and as a reminder to her to keep her sexual desires under control. Thus, people today may associate people with tattoos with useless people. People today look at people with tattoos as abnormal people; they would think that people with tattoos are not like any ordinary person, something must be different about them. One of the reason could be due to how dime museums and circuses in the past exhibited tattoos. In the nineteenth centuries, Freak shows better known today as circuses emerged. In these performances, tattooed people were considered made freaks, which means that they were not b orn with tattoos but looked like monsters. In dime museums, tattoos were exhibited alongside people with disabilities and natural wonders like wild animals and native people. Thus, this made tattoos seem bizarre at that era. Tattooed people as gang members? Secondly, tattooed people are often stereotyped to be gang members. This is true to a certain extent because tattoos have become a popular method adopted by gang members to mark their group identity and their alienation from the mainstream norm and social networks. Gang members in particular take pride in branding themselves as outside of the boundaries of conventional society. Tattoos have long been a means of identifying oneself with a group or culture and triad gangs were one of the first groups to use tattoos as a means of denoting identity and affinity. Tattoos are a way of both asserting membership in the gang and flaunting their lack of membership in straight society. For this reason, street gang members will often get tattoos on their hands and faces so as to permanently bar them from being a part of normal society. Tattoos can tell other details about the bearer, including rank in the gang and number of hits or other services performed on the gangs behalf, for example, the y akuza boss has full body suit tattoos. Tattoos were also used to express gang members often fatalist philosophy of life. One popular tattoo among Hispanic gangsters is a depiction of the smiling and crying comedy and tragedy masks, meaning, play now and pay later, or my happy life, my sad life. Clock faces are also found within the intricate artwork that can make up a gangsters tattoos. If the clock has no hands, it symbolizes doing time in prison. In addition, tattoos served as a way for them to disrespect the authority, a desire for revenge, obscene words and obscene images. Take for example, the Yakuza have full-body suit tattoos on them as a symbol of being part of the gang. Tattoos are painful and permanent, this permanence marks their undying loyalty to their gang leader and that they will never leave the gang while the pain derived from tattooing was a symbol of their masculinity and that they were fearless individuals. Tattoos were not just popular in the western triads, Asi an gang triads, like those in Japan, Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan too have tattoos on them. Some Hong Kong triad members have dragons and phoenixes on their arms as a symbol of part of the gang. This may be because in Chinese traditions, phoenixes and dragons are auspicious and powerful animals. These symbols will bless them and allow them to be a successful triad. From our research, we see that that gang triads worldwide seems to have a liking for tattoos and the practice of tattooing, thus we can conclude that tattoos as a representation of gang triads is actually a worldwide phenomenon. Thus, it is no surprise that when people encounter a tattooed person, they will associate him or her with gang triads. Figure 4: A common tattoo among Hispanic gang members, usually tattooed on the hand between the thumb and index finger. Figure 5: This symbol that stands for mi vida loca, my crazy life. Southeast Asian gangsters have adopted the same tattoo of the three dots, defining its meaning as To O Can Gica, or I care for nothing. In this paper, we will examine the role mass media plays in creating and shaping the stereotypes of people having tattoos. Mass media which includes the newspaper, movies and television has always been a great power of influence of people, affecting our viewpoints, decisions, perceptions, beliefs and even our habits in life. This is because, advancement in technology has made access to mass media content easier to everyone, so much so that it has become a tool for people to obtain knowledge of the world. In addition, as the society we lived in is commercial- and media-driven, television shows, advertisements, movies, cartoons and even music will affect the way we perceive the world around us. It is important to note that our knowledge of the world or what is happening around is frequently derived from the mass media. Many times, it is difficult for us to experience or see it evidently to know of it. Hence, we assumed what portrayed in the mass media to be truth and evidence of what i s happening. Studies have shown that mass media tend to present a limited and recurring range of images and ideas which differs from realities hence the mass media is not a reliable source of information for the people. However, the mass media is not entirely unreliable as its credibility will depends almost entirely on the integrity of its author. This is often subjective among authors of TV series, newspaper and movies. Thus, we think that careful thinking should be taken when we are viewing the mass media and the usage of its content. We should not assume that all is true or wrong in the mass media but make our decisions and opinions on what is shown in it. Television dramas and movies like LOST, CSI and Prison Break(See Fig.8) have portray tattoos in the bad light, using tattoos as way to identify criminals, villains and gang members. Take for example, local sitcom Police and Thief, Mark Lee who acted as the gang member had a tattoo on his arm. The constant portrayal of stereoty ping of people with tattoos will cause people to internalize the image that tattoos are related to villains and criminals. The effects of internalization can be drawn to case study of mass media and thin ideals. Research shows that continual exposure to the image that thin is beautiful has result in people thinking that thin is beautiful. The way the mass media causes people to internalize the images of thin ideals is similar to the way it causes people to internalize the image that tattooed people are villains, criminals and gang members. Hence, it results people to view those with tattoos as people who are criminals, villains and immoral. Research has shown a consistent relationship between the amount of television viewed and beliefs about the social world. As our world modernizes, tattooing on criminals was abolished and became a trend for many others. The idea of tattoos being associated with crime and gang members also changed. This is partly due to the mass media and the change in gangs practice. Mass media created the stereotype that tattoos are associated to criminals and gangsters but on the other hand, it also showed celebrities wearing tattoos. With the proliferation of the entertainment media worldwide, it increased peoples exposure to celebrities which resulted in an elevation of the power of influence of celebrities. Hence, celebrities play a role in influencing how we see tattoos. Actors, models, musicians, and idolized athletes proudly herald the mainstreaming of a previously marginalized and historically underground practice. This causes tattooing to be gentrified and repackaged as desirable and fashionable. For example, David Beckham has a no. 9 tattooed on him to represent himself; the number he wore for Manchester Unit ed.Next, there is a decrease in the practice of tattooing in gang members, the reasons why they do not want tattoos will be discussed further in our project. To unveil the realities of tattoos, we will look into why gang members no longer want tattoos, and also show that tattoos actually have many other different definitions other than the usual image people have. As mentioned earlier in our paper, tattooed people are stereotyped to be criminals and gang members. Tattoos were a way to represent gang identity, it also became a way for the police to spot gang members and catch them. This causes tattoos to become a disadvantage for gang members and gangs. This is because their illegal activities could be easily discovered if police see a group of tattooed people around. Hence, some gang members and gangs actually discourage tattooing in order to allow their illegal activities to go unspotted. Take for example, in Japan, modern Yakuza bosses discourages tattooing in order to avoid the attention of the police. Another example is seen in the Yamagumi boss Takenaka Masahisa who has no tattoos. In addition, ex-gang members also try to avoid being identified as gang members for fear of being attacked by other gang members. For example, see in Figure 10, a man by the name Hugo removed his tattoos as he was attacked on the streets. From here, we can infe r that tattoos are no longer the proud symbol gang members wore to show their identity or ex-gang members wore to show that they were part of them before. With the dangers attached with tattoos wore on them, there is a decrease in this practice in some gangs. Thus it is a stereotype that tattoos actually represent gang triads as gang members can look like the normal average person without tattoos on them. Tattoos may be a symbol to represent the individualistic character of one through self-expression and creating an identity. Tattoos allow the wearer to be differentiated from the mainstream and contribute to the image of them as being unique. In Ervin Goffmans exposition, he suggested that the physical cues offered to others through scripted body performance are pivoted in shaping interpretations of the self. This statement was further supported by Mark B. Stephens , he said that tattoos are an important way to self-express and create an identity for many, especially the younger generation. Among the general adolescent populations, between 10% and 30% of adolescents or young adults currently have tattoos. Adolescents and their parents are often at odds over the acquisition of bodily decorations. For the adolescent, piercings or tattoos may be seen as personal and beautifying statements, while parents may construe them as oppositional and enraging affronts to their authority In using such decorations, and by marking out their bodily territories, adolescents can support their efforts at autonomy, privacy, and insulation. Seeking individuation, tattooed adolescents can become unambiguously demarcated from others and singled out as unique. Therefore, by having tattoos, it is a way for teenager to convey a message to their parents that they should be in control of their own body and life. In addition, tattoos were frequently used to create group identities, other than gangsters, in the modern world. Tattoos were used as an identity for modern women in Thailand as females were not allowed to have tattoos in the ancient times because the tattoo artists were men and thus, they were not allowed to be touched by other men. Therefore, women with tattoos in Thailand today would signify a new era and the change of conservative women image to a more liberal identity. Tattoos can also be as a symbol of following the crowd and worshipping of their idols. With celebrities wearing tattoos, it causes people who enamored with the particular celebrity to follow in their path. This has resulted in a different understanding of tattoos. Those who were followers of the celebrities would definitely see tattoos from a different viewpoint. They will not see tattoos as gang members but cool and fashionable. To the fanatics, their celebrities have the ideal look, thus they will try to look and act like film and television stars by adopting their clothing styles and mannerisms. Hence, we see that if celebrities have tattoos it could most likely cause their fans to have the tattoos too. Take for example, Angelina Jolie have lots of tattoos. Her fans tend to follow the trend and start to have tattoos on their bodies. Following with the group in case of peer groups will often affect youths. Youth, aged 12 to 17 undergoes a period of uncertainty of their identity as this is period which they are neither children nor adults. Adults treat them as children while they want to be treated as adults, but yet, they are still immature to make some of their decisions. Thus, it causes them to seek the peers for support as they are the ones who can best identify with and understand them. Youth become subjected to peer pressure as they would want to be part of the group. When their peer group wants to have a tattoo, they too would want a tattoo in order to be part of the group as the tattoo would be a group identity. Although there maybe some dissent about where and what tattoos should be place on them, but Youth would usually go ahead with the majority. In this case, tattoos may not be a symbol of being gang members or criminals but intent to signify ones unique identity among peers by being trend followers, w hich is to have tattoos. Tattoos as art Tattoos also became a way for people to decorate themselves, in a way, to enhance their beauty. Researchers have shown that celebrities are icons of fashion trends. With celebrities wearing tattoos there is no doubt that many people look up to tattoos as a decoration on oneself, thus they treat tattoos as a form of art. This results in an erasure of early images and meanings of tattoo by recreating tattoo as a form of art. People treat their skin as canvas and would tattoo as much as they like on it. People are so convinced that tattoo is a form of art that it led to the increase in number of tattoo art galleries for the appreciation of tattoo designs. These galleries display all kinds of tattoo designs, both ancient and modern, which help to understand the meaning behind this body art that is inked into skin. Tattoos are not only become part of the art gallery, it also became more recognized internationally. Many international tattoos shows were held as a way to showcase tattoos as an art. Take for example, Singapore Tattoo show 2009, International London Tattoo Convention were held to showcase tattoos as a form of art. These events received overwhelming response, with an astounding 20000 participants for the London Tattoo Convention. We see an increase in support of tattoos exhibition and that tattoos are slowly recognized as a form of art worldwide. Tattoos and Religions In addition, tattooing is a tradition for some religions as it represents their beliefs for their religion and can act as a form of blessings to them. Take for example Euro-Asiatic Catholics living on the Malabar Coast tattooed birds on their forearms as a symbol of the Holy Ghost, while Christian Serbs tattooed their arms with a cross. Catholic girls used to gather in the cloisters of churches to get small religious tattoos that they believed had magic powers in Bosnia and Herzegovina In terms of peoples belief and religions, wearing a particular tattoo would enable them, on dying, to pass from this earth to the land of the spirits. Moreover, tattooing has become a spiritual act as its process is often viewed as ritualistic. For some devotees getting tattoos after a long and painful process, they would usually feel a connection with the spiritual world and thus, tattoos became an important part of peoples spiritual identities. It was believed that human bodies are sacred, thus tatto os were treated as signs of recognition in the world of the spirits amongst the Naga, in Assam. This is because the husbands would choose a motif to tattoo on the shoulder of their faithful wives so as to recognize them in the afterlife. Similarly, Bengal Hindus believed that a person dying without tattoos wouldnt be recognized by his relatives in the world of the spirits. The pictures below are religious tattoo designs wore by devotees. Figure 11: Celtic tattoo Figure 12:Holy spirit tattoo How stereotypes affect their life? Stereotype will affect the life of tattooed people in terms of employability, finding a life partner and cause inconvenience to their daily life. According to a survey, 85% of survey respondents agreed that tattoos impede ones chances of getting a job. Regardless of who the real person may be, stereotypes associated with tattoos can and do affect others. In general, individuals with tattoos are often viewed as rougher or less educated.' Despite such prejudice, only 16% of employers have an official company policy on tattoos and piercings. Vault found that over half of employees with tattoos have to cover them up when they were at work. Forty-two percent of those surveyed admitted to having tattoos. Of that group, 40% had one or more tattoo. Therefore, this survey clearly showed that people with tattoos are prejudiced against and this caused inconvenience to them at work. Secondly, the stereotypes of tattoos caused tattooed people to have difficulties looking for a life-partner. Studies have shown that different attitudes towards people with tattoos. This is supported by a research done in United Kingdom, the results showed that tattooed women were rated as less physically attractive, more sexually promiscuous and heavier drinkers than non-tattooed women by men, with more negative ratings with increasing number of tattoos. This showed that men tend to find women with tattoos less attractive and hence, this made tattooed women less possible to find a partner. Lastly, people with tattoos experience some inconvenience in life. This is because of its association with gang members and criminals. Take for example, in Japan, public places like gyms, public baths and hot spring resorts forbid entry of tattooed people. This is because tattoos are greatly associated with the yakuza, the Japanese mob. Owners of these places are afraid that these tattooed people would cause trouble for other customers which will then affect their business and reputation.

Crusader Castles: A Medieval Culmination :: miscellaneous

Crusader Castles: A Medieval Culmination King Edward I of England made a number of military campaigns during his reign, in two of which he captured modern-day Wales. In order to hold his gains he built a series of castles, which are said to still be some of the world’s greatest strongholds. But, over 3500 kilometres away a period of fascinating castle building took place prior to Edward’s as a result of the crusades. These constructions were designed by absorbing the constructive wisdom of the crusaders and those they came into contact with. The crusader castles were built faster, larger, and stronger, to create what are without a doubt, the world’s greatest strongholds. The crusaders designed their castles to provide the essentials needed for survival while developing design techniques capable of turning a castle into a stronghold that were mimicked throughout the medieval world. Once their castles were designed the crusaders displayed a construction ability and ingenuity that turned the designs into r eality, taking any material they could obtain and use it to create anything they needed. So successful was their construction that attacking forces of incredibly larger numbers were needed to capture only a select few of the castles over a hundred year period, and often the circumstances of capture were not a fault of design but an unfortunate twist of fate. Through design, construction, and history, a picture emerges of a pioneering period of military construction that was never matched. The design of a castle is most certainly the greatest factor in its defensive capabilities, and many of the innovations credited to the development of the castle finds itself in the history of the crusades. The most significant development is the concentric castle; this is the concept in which the inner walls are able to fire over the outer walls, either because of close proximity or size. In this manner the maximum amount of firepower can be directed at any one point. Belvoir (See Fig. 1 in appendix) is not only a perfect concentric castle but is also the first datable one (circa 1168). The outer wall was built with flanking towers and towers enforcing the centre of each wall span, with the exception of the gatehouse wall. This wall encloses an area of 130 x 100 meters1, making it one of the largest enclosure castles, it also encloses two further walls, the first of which has only one tower because of its close proximity to the outer wall, the inner wall is built with flanking towers to support the middle bailey.

Ascendency Through Knowledge Essay -- Intellectual History, Sociology,

Ascendency through Knowledge New Atlantis begins with the apparent utopian society successfully synthesizing scientific endeavor and achievement with Christian theology. This revelation is only half-hearted; Bacon’s true motive is nothing less than the subversion of Christian scholastic dogma and replacing it with material wellbeing through scientific scholarship as outlined in Bacon’s works. Through proper method a different kind of knowledge could be acquired liberating human destiny from divine intervention. Bacon’s knowledge empowers mankind reducing suffering and improving our wellbeing. â€Å"Wherefore, as in religion we are warned to show our faith by works, so in philosophy by the same rule the system should be judged by its fruits, and pronounced frivolous if it be barren,† (New Organon, Bacon, 12) Bacon in the 17th century elevated the measure for knowledge where it must be able to produce useful works separating itself from the past. Intellectual history as a discipline and as a way of thinking about the world has a history. Ideas and ways of thinking and ways of understanding the world have a history. Considering the history of human achievement whether we are talking about political history, economic history, military history, and gender history nothing compares in raw measure to our living history. This history includes what we think is possible or what is impossible. How we think about the world determines our relationship to it. Human thought has a history, which the way we think in modern times is not the way people have understood it or thought about it. Humanity changes how we think about the natural world, what is out there to be known? What is the stuff of the world? Why things happen? What is good evidence?... ...ist Bacon explains is a wise man or member of Solomon’s House where after receiving the heavenly manuscripts falls to his knees and remarked, â€Å"†¦to those of our order to know thy works of creation, and true secrets of them; and to discern, as far as appertaineth to the generations of men†¦.† (Bacon, New Atlantis, 67) Bacon outlines knowledge not from deduction from authority but induction from the distinct events in nature. Through patient observation we may form considerate thoughtful generalizations, where we may test these generalizations always refining and always open to new avenues of experimentation. Bacon’s Knowledge is verifiable and productive, the New Atlantis was dedicated to human knowledge and with it the technological progress that empowered humanity this view was in contrast to the scholastic perspective of an unchanging, contemplative universe.